Misinformation beyond fact-checking: Definitional integration and the dual-path evolution model

Recently, misinformation has garnered wider attention. However, the ambiguous definition of misinformation hinders deeper and more integrated research across various fields concerning misinformation. Therefore, departing from fact-checking methods, we identify two receiver-based misinformation dimensions: public engagement level and gist misunderstanding. Furthermore, we integrate existing conceptualizations of misinformation to propose an evolutionary model that delineates two key pathways of misinformation development: (1) information distortion processes and (2) intra-group dissemination dynamics. This work is anticipated to (1) systematize the currently fragmented conceptualizations of misinformation through its dual-dimensional integration and (2) establish novel diagnostic metrics for disinformation identification in applied domains, such as health communication and public opinion governance, while (3) providing theoretical foundations for platform content moderation and media literacy education by elucidating misinformation’s source-level evolutionary mechanisms, ultimately contributing to more robust scientific frameworks and societal-level prevention systems.

Introduction

Misinformation erodes the foundations of democracy and science, and its harms to society escalate as it spreads. During the pandemic, health-related misinformation spread rapidly, while vaccine misinformation significantly impacted vaccination rates. Amplified by social media, misinformation continues to cause harm across multiple domains, including climate issues, public health, politics, and finance, which has prompted organizations such as the APA to call for combating this “infodemic” with interdisciplinary solutions.

Research on misinformation faces two main challenges: (1) the definition of misinformation is unclear, with varying criteria across studies, making integration difficult. Current definitions focus on factual inaccuracies and misleading intent, overlooking psychological differences. (2) There is insufficient research on the development of misinformation. Existing studies have focused on susceptibility, dissemination, and response strategies but have neglected the process by which valid information turns into misinformation, hindering efforts to address the issue at its source.

It is imperative to expand and standardize the definition of misinformation; rigorously explore its origins, including unintended misinformation from credible sources; and develop complex network models at a macro level to clarify its characteristics, consistent with psychological and communication research frameworks. To achieve this goal, this study first analyzed existing definitions of misinformation and then proposed two dimensions to integrate these definitions, ultimately constructing a theoretical model of misinformation development. The study not only bridges conceptual divides but also provides testable hypotheses for empirical validation, advancing the field beyond mere descriptive accounts.